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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Compression (physics)</span></span>
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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">Stress (mechanics)</a>.</div>
<p>In <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanics</a>, <b>compression</b> is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") <a href="Force" title="Force">forces</a> to different points on a material or <a href="Structural_system" title="Structural system">structure</a>, that is, forces with no <a href="Net_force" title="Net force">net sum</a> or <a href="Torque" title="Torque">torque</a> directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions.<sup id="cite_ref-Beer_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beer-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is contrasted with <a href="Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tension</a> or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with <a href="Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shearing</a> forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The <a href="Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a> of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration.
</p><p>In <b>uniaxial compression</b>, the forces are directed along one direction only, so that they act towards decreasing the object's length along that direction.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The compressive forces may also be applied in multiple directions; for example inwards along the edges of a plate or all over the side surface of a <a href="Cylinder_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder (geometry)">cylinder</a>, so as to reduce its <a href="Area" title="Area">area</a> (<b>biaxial compression</b>), or inwards over the entire surface of a body, so as to reduce its <a href="Volume" title="Volume">volume</a>.
</p><p>Technically, a material is under a state of compression, at some specific point and along a specific direction <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> is directed opposite to <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>. If the stress vector itself is opposite to <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
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</math></span><img src="./87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>, and the material may be under compression along some directions but under traction along others. If the stress vector is purely compressive and has the same magnitude for all directions, the material is said to be under <b>isotropic compression</b>, <b>hydrostatic compression</b>, or <b>bulk compression</b>. This is the only type of static compression that <a href="Liquids" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquids">liquids</a> and <a href="Gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Gases">gases</a> can bear.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It affects the volume of the material, as quantified by the <a href="Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">bulk modulus</a> and the <a href="Volumetric_strain" class="mw-redirect" title="Volumetric strain">volumetric strain</a>.
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</p><p>The inverse process of compression is called <i>decompression</i>, <i>dilation</i>, or <i>expansion</i>, in which the object enlarges or increases in volume.
</p><p>In a <a href="Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">mechanical wave</a>, which is <a href="Longitudinal_wave" title="Longitudinal wave">longitudinal</a>, the medium is displaced in the wave's direction, resulting in areas of compression and <a href="Rarefaction" title="Rarefaction">rarefaction</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2></div>
<p>When put under compression (or any other type of stress), every material will suffer some <a href="Deformation_(physics)" title="Deformation (physics)">deformation</a>, even if imperceptible, that causes the average relative positions of its atoms and molecules to change. The deformation may be permanent, or may be reversed when the compression forces disappear. In the latter case, the deformation gives rise to reaction forces that oppose the compression forces, and may eventually balance them.<sup id="cite_ref-ONE_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ONE-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Liquids and gases cannot bear steady uniaxial or biaxial compression, they will deform promptly and permanently and will not offer any permanent reaction force. However they can bear <a href="Isotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotropic">isotropic</a> compression, and may be compressed in other ways momentarily, for instance in a <a href="Sound_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound wave">sound wave</a>.
</p>
<p>Every ordinary material will contract in volume when put under isotropic compression, contract in cross-section area when put under uniform biaxial compression, and contract in length when put into uniaxial compression. The deformation may not be uniform and may not be aligned with the compression forces. What happens in the directions where there is no compression depends on the material.<sup id="cite_ref-ONE_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ONE-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most materials will expand in those directions, but some special materials will remain unchanged or even contract. In general, the relation between the stress applied to a material and the resulting deformation is a central topic of <a href="Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">continuum mechanics</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div>
<p>Compression of solids has many implications in <a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="Structural_engineering" title="Structural engineering">structural engineering</a>, for compression yields noticeable amounts of <a href="Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stress</a> and <a href="Tension_(mechanics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tension (mechanics)">tension</a>.
</p><p>By inducing compression, mechanical properties such as <a href="Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a> or <a href="Modulus_of_elasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulus of elasticity">modulus of elasticity</a>, can be measured.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Compression machines range from very small table top systems to ones with over 53 MN capacity.
</p><p>Gases are often stored and shipped in highly <a href="Compressed_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Compressed gas">compressed</a> form, to save space. Slightly compressed air or other gases are also used to fill <a href="Balloon" title="Balloon">balloons</a>, <a href="Rubber_boat" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber boat">rubber boats</a>, and other <a href="Inflatable_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflatable structure">inflatable structures</a>. Compressed liquids are used in <a href="Hydraulic_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic equipment">hydraulic equipment</a> and in <a href="Fracking" title="Fracking">fracking</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_engines">In engines</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_combustion_engines">Internal combustion engines</h3></div>
<p>In <a href="Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">internal combustion engines</a> the explosive mixture gets compressed before it is ignited; the compression improves the efficiency of the engine. In the <a href="Otto_cycle" title="Otto cycle">Otto cycle</a>, for instance, the second stroke of the piston effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into the cylinder by the first forward stroke.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steam_engines">Steam engines</h3></div>
<p>The term is applied to the arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a <a href="Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> is made to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the <a href="Cylinder_(engine)" title="Cylinder (engine)">cylinder</a>, before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This steam being compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is formed against which the <a href="Piston" title="Piston">piston</a> does work while its velocity is being rapidly reduced, and thus the stresses in the mechanism due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts are lessened.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiser_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiser-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This compression, moreover, obviates the shock which would otherwise be caused by the admission of the fresh steam for the return stroke.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Buckling" title="Buckling">Buckling</a></li>
<li><a href="Container_compression_test" title="Container compression test">Container compression test</a></li>
<li><a href="Compression_member" title="Compression member">Compression member</a></li>
<li><a href="Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">Compressive strength</a></li>
<li><a href="Longitudinal_wave" title="Longitudinal wave">Longitudinal wave</a></li>
<li><a href="P-wave" class="mw-redirect" title="P-wave">P-wave</a></li>
<li><a href="Rarefaction" title="Rarefaction">Rarefaction</a></li>
<li><a href="Strength_of_materials" title="Strength of materials">Strength of materials</a></li>
<li><a href="R%C3%A9sal_effect" title="Résal effect">Résal effect</a></li>
<li><a href="Plane_strain_compression_test" title="Plane strain compression test">Plane strain compression test</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-07-112939-1</bdi></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erkens, Sandra & Poot, M. The uniaxial compression test. Delft University of Technology. (1998). Report number: 7-98-117-4.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald L. Huston and Harold Josephs (2009), "Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design". 3rd edition, CRC Press, 634 pages. ISBN 9781574447132</span>
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</li>
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